|
Anesthesia/Pain Management Sandra Z Perkowski, VMD, PhD, DACVA School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Anesthetizing the Small Animal Patient: The Basics PRE-OPERATIVE EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT Preoperative evaluation and preparation of the patient prior to anesthesia are crucial when managing any patient. Proper preoperative management helps minimize any deleterious effects anesthesia and surgery may have on the patient and helps promote recovery in the postoperative period. Decisions as to which anesthetic agents are selected and how they are administered are based upon several different factors including history, signalment (species, breed, age), size and temperament of the particular patient, physical exam, reason for presentation and procedure(s) to be performed, and experience (both your own and that of any available help) History An effort should be made to get as complete a history as possible. This should include presenting complaint, known medical conditions, any current medications, and previous anesthetic history. Physical Exam A complete physical examination should always be done prior to anesthesia. Special care should be made to evaluate the following: Weight and body condition
Laboratory tests for the determination of intravascular volume include packed cell volume (PCV) and total solids (TS), urine specific gravity and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). PCV and TS should always be evaluated together and used in conjunction with history and clinical presentation. Remember, acute blood loss is not immediately reflected by changes in PCV and TS.
In the absence of renal dysfunction, urine specific gravity and BUN may be helpful in assessing the degree of dehydration. Urine production can also be monitored and will decrease secondary to decreased renal perfusion in the hypovolemic patient. Whenever possible, a complete blood count (CBC, white blood cell count and differential) should be done prior to anesthesia and used in conjunction with history and clinical presentation. A white cell count may reveal underlying infectious disease which will be exacerbated by the anesthesia. Ideally, a complete chemistry screen should also be performed prior to surgery to identify any underlying metabolic disease (renal disease, hepatic disease, endocrinopathies). This is especially important in older patients (>6 yr of age, or >5 yr for giant breed dogs) or patients with a known medical condition. The minimum blood work required for healthy, older patients at VHUP includes a CBC, PCV, TS and creatinine. Additional diagnostic tests may be run depending on the individual patient. Fluid Therapy Prior to anesthesia, evaluation of hydration status is made on the basis of physical exam findings and laboratory results. The most common cause of hypotension is inadequate volume due to inadequate fluid replacement pre-operatively or failure to keep up with intra-operative fluid and/or blood loss. When time and the animal's condition permits, any electrolyte abnormalities present (especially potassium and calcium) should be normalized prior to the induction of anesthesia via the appropriate fluid therapy and supplementation. Mildly elevated or decreased values generally do not represent a contraindication to anesthesia. Intravenous access should ALWAYS be available when anesthetizing a patient. Normal maintenance fluid rates for animals in the awake state are 2 - 4 ml/kg/hr. Maintenance fluid rates for the average anesthetized patient are 6 - 12 ml/kg/hr, with adjustments made for patients with cardiopulmonary disease, renal disease, or head trauma. Additional volume replacement for blood loss may be required. Approximately 3 mls of crystalloid (i.e. a balanced electrolyte solution) are required to replace every 1 ml of blood loss, due to fluid distribution between the intravascular and extravascular spaces. MANAGEMENT OF ANESTHESIA Once preoperative evaluation of the patient is complete and the patient is adequately hydrated and otherwise stabilized, anesthesia is ready to begin. Selection of anesthetic agents should be dependent on the condition of the patient and the procedure to be performed. Preanesthetic Drug Selection Preanesthetic medications are frequently used prior to induction of anesthesia. Reasons include:
Act as competitive antagonists of acetylcholine at the postganglionic autonomic muscarinic receptor. They are frequently used as a premedication to help prevent vagally-mediated bradycardia (secondary to other anesthetic drugs (opioids, alpha-2 agonists), secondary to surgical manipulation (ocular, laryngeal, visceral traction) or in patients with high resting vagal tone. They also decrease salivation and excessive airway secretions. Other side effects include decreased intestinal motility, increased myocardial oxygen consumption due to increased heart rate, and increased incidence of cardiac arrhythmias and decreased threshold for ventricular fibrillation. Atropine and glycopyrrolate differ primarily in duration of action, with glycopyrrolate lasting about twice as long as atropine. In addition, glycopyrrolate is a quaternary ammonium structure (meaning it is a charged molecule!) and does not cross the blood brain barrier or placenta. Phenothiazine Tranquilizers (acepromazine, promazine) Acepromazine is commonly used to provide calming prior to anesthetic induction or in the post-anesthetic period. It is useful in relatively healthy patients; however should be avoided in patients where volume status or cardiovascular stability is a concern.
Barbiturates (thiopental, methohexital)
Propofol is a non-barbiturate intravenous anesthetic agent (substituted isopropyl phenol) that is highly lipid soluble. Current available preparations provide the active ingredient in a soybean oil/lecithin emulsion and should be handled with strict aseptic technique. The manufacturer states that propofol should not be refrigerated (or frozen!) and, once opened, the contents should be used within several hours due to the potential for significant bacterial contamination. Newer preparations are currently under development and will hopefully increase the shelf life of the opened containers. Induction of anesthesia is generally smooth and intubation is usually achieved after a total intravenous dose of 4 - 6 mg/kg titrated slowly to effect (i.e. given as an infusion over a 5 minute period or as 1-2 mg/kg IV slowly administered boluses). The emphasis on slow administration of the agent is due to the fact that clinically significant side effects (both cardiovascular and respiratory) occur with propofol administration and the incidence of these side effects is both dose and rate dependent. It is recommended that oxygen be administered via face mask during induction. Propofol, given by itself, is ultrashort acting with a 5 - 10 minute duration of anesthesia after induction. This can be both an advantage and a disadvantage, depending on the case. It is rapidly redistributed and cleared by both hepatic and extrahepatic metabolism and does not significantly accumulate with repeated dosing or constant infusion (0.05 - 0.2 mg/kg/min). Patients are remarkably alert upon recovery. Due to the presence of extrahepatic sites of metabolism, propofol may be useful in patients with impaired hepatic function (e.g. portosystemic shunts). Similarly, it may be useful when performing a Caesarian section. Although propofol freely crosses the placental barrier, the majority of the drug will redistribute back to the larger maternal circulation over a 5 - 10 minute period . Residual propofol in the neonatal circulation at birth will eventually be cleared. Propofol is a potent peripheral vasodilator and may cause significant cardiovascular depression in volume-deplete or cardiovascularly compromised patients, greater even than that seen with barbiturates, and should not be used in these cases. Decreases in myocardial contractility also occur at higher doses. CV depression is especially pronounced, even in healthy patients, if propofol is given as a large, rapid bolus - therefore, it is recommended that it be given slowly in small repeated boluses or as an infusion. Propofol may be given in combination with 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg diazepam IV, which has minimal cardiovascular and respiratory side effects. Although the animal will take slightly longer to recover than with propofol alone, the amount of propofol required for induction is decreased and blood pressure is better maintained. Use of preoperative medication may also help decrease the dose of propofol required. Since propofol does NOT provide analgesia, preoperative administration of an opioid or other analgesic is recommended for patients undergoing a surgical procedure. Opioids, in general, also have minimal cardiovascular side effects. Adverse cardiovascular effects may be exacerbated if acepromazine, which is also a vasodilator, has been given. Propofol can also cause significant respiratory depression, again more pronounced with large, rapid boluses. It is recommended that the patient receive supplemental oxygen throughout the anesthetic period and preferably be intubated. Other occasional side effects include myoclonic twitching which may be controlled by diazepam or thiopental. Opisthotonus is seen rarely. Propofol is useful for rapid sequence inductions where cardiovascular function is not a concern. It is ideal for short procedures (eg transtracheal wash) and sedations (e.g. for radiographs or bandage changes). Because recovery is relatively rapid, it is also useful for brachycephalic patients undergoing anesthesia for any reason, as long as the animal is cardiovascularly stable. Effects on the central nervous system are similar to the effects of thiopental and continuous propofol infusions (0.05 - 0.1 mg/kg/min) have been used successfully to control seizures in animals refractory to other medication. Care should be taken when using propofol in cats. Because it is a phenol derivative, Cats will occasionally have an unexpectedly prolonged recovery. In addition, hematologic abnormalities (Heinz body formation) have been seen in cats after repeated use. Opioids
Etomidate is an ultrashort acting intravenous anesthetic causing rapid induction of anesthesia after intravenous bolus (0.5 - 1.5 mg/kg) with a duration of action of 5-10 minutes. Rapidly metabolized by liver and plasma by nonspecific plasma esterases, therefore recovery is rapid and etomidate does not accumulate with repeated boluses or a continuous infusion. It is useful for anesthetic induction in patients with cardiovascular instability, and causes minimal effects on heart rate and rhythm, cardiac output, and blood pressure. In addition, it causes minimal respiratory depression. Etomidate may induce vomiting and/or myoclonic twitching when used alone, but this reaction is significantly diminished when given in combination with an opioid and a benzodiazepine tranquilizer. Etomidate suppresses adrenocortical activity for several hours after a single bolus, which may be of concern in debilitated patients. Etomidate is solubilized in propylene glycol, which is hypersosmotic and administration of large amounts may lead to hemolysis and pigmenturia which may be of concern in patients with renal compromise. This can be avoided by diluting the etomidate with saline to prevent further insult to the kidney (e.g. although etomidate is the drug of choice for cats undergoing renal transplants at VHUP, it is diluted 1:10 before it's use!) Etomidate does not provide analgesia. It is also relatively expensive. MAINTENANCE OF ANESTHESIA Inhalant Anesthetics Inhalant anesthesia is the mainstay of anesthetic maintenance. Duration of action is not dependent on metabolism and anesthetic depth can be rapidly adjusted The two inhalant agents currently used most frequently in small animal practice are isoflurane and halothane. However, halothane has recently been removed from the market. Sevoflurane, which is similar in cardiovascular properties to isoflurane, is being used with increasing frequency, but is still very expensive at this time. All potent inhalants produce dose-dependent cardiovascular depression but, at equipotent doses, isoflurane and sevoflurane produce less myocardial depression than halothane. Isoflurane and sevoflurane cause vasodilation, but cardiac output is maintained by increases in heart rate. All the potent inhalants cause respiratory depression (shift the CO2 response curve to the right) Injectable Anesthetics Occasionally, very sick animals will not tolerate inhalant anesthesia and an injectable technique must be used
Minimum monitoring used at VHUP includes an EKG, indirect blood pressure measurement using a Doppler or oscillometric measuring device (e.g. Dinamap, MDE Escort) and esophageal stethoscope. As indicated, other monitoring should be added
POST-OPERATIVE CARE In most healthy patients, fluids do not need to be continued in the post-operative period. However, the importance of post-operative fluid therapy in the critical patient cannot be overemphasized. The use of analgesics has become increasingly popular in small animal practice, as the awareness of pain and its detrimental effects in veterinary patients has increased. USE THEM! SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS Anesthetizing the Patient with Increased Intracranial Presssure Elevated intracranial pressure, due to head trauma, intracranial masses, etc. place the patient at an increased risk of cerebral ischemia and brain stem herniation. Any increase in total intracranial volume will cause an increase in intracranial pressure (ICP) The three major compartments found intracranially are the cells and interstitial fluid, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Cerebral blood volume is the only compartment able to increase or decrease its volume quickly, therefore, anesthetic management is directed at controlling CBV. The aim of anesthesia is to minimize increases in cerebral blood flow (CBF, and, therefore, CBV) while maintaining sufficient blood flow to meet the oxygen requirements of the brain. This is accomplished by maintaining adequate arterial pressure and oxygenation, while decreasing CO2 concentrations and cerebral metabolism. Normally, the brain autoregulates its blood flow over a pressure range of 50 - 150 mmHg. However, autoregulation may be disrupted in the diseased or injured brain. Cerebral perfusion pressure = mean arterial pressure - ICP. Cerebral perfusion is usually maintained with a minimum arterial pressure of 50 - 60 mmHg. Under conditions of increased ICP, arterial pressures must be maintained at higher levels CBF begins to increase below a PaO2 of 60 mmHg. O2 content and delivery is more important than PaO2 and a decrease in hemoglobin will lead to an increase in CBV. PaCO2 is the most potent factor controlling CBF and CBV and hyperventilation is these patients is of utmost importance. CBF increases 2 ml/100g/min for every mmHg increase in PaCO2 Cerebral metabolic rate (CMR) is coupled to CBF. Factors increasing CMR include: fever, pain, seizures, and ketamine. The reduction in ICP seen with barbiturates are due to their depressive effects on CMR In addition to the above, cerebral venous pressure should be minimized. Two common problems are a head-down position and jugular compression Most patients require little, if any, premedication other than glycopyrrolate. Opioids, which are respiratory depressants, should be avoided to prevent hypercarbia. Acepromazine may cause an increased potential for seizures. Ketamine is contraindicated in any patient with increased ICP! Mannitol, furosemide, and/or glucocorticoids are frequently given prior to induction to decrease cerebral edema. Mannitol alone may cause a transient increase in ICP due to transient increases in CBV. This is prevented by prior administration (e.g. by 20 minutes) of furosemide. Glucocorticoids may cause vomiting which is contraindicated. Anesthetic induction should always be followed with intubation and ventilation with 100% oxygen. Make sure anesthesia is adequate to prevent coughing on intubation. Thiobarbiturates are an excellent choice for induction as long as the patient is cardiovascularly stable. Thiopental reduces CMR and CBF in a coupled fashion to near half of the awake values, causing a decrease in ICP (even that refractory to hyperventilation and mannitol). Etomidate or propofol may also be used. Opioids (used in combination with a benzodiazepine) are often used for induction, as the patient will be intubated and ventilated. Fentanyl has been the most completely studied opioid and causes minimal increases in CBV as long as PaCO2 is maintained at normal levels. Lidocaine is frequently given as part of the induction and helps to desensitize the airway and prevent coughing on intubation. All of the potent inhalants are cerebrovasodilators, leading to an increase in ICP. These agents also impair autoregulation Halothane produces the greatest increase in ICP and isoflurane the least. Cerebral vasodilation can be avoided if low concentrations of the agent are used in conjunction with hyperventilation. When using isoflurane, hyperventilation may be instituted simultaneously with administration to prevent cerebrovasodilation. Intravenous boluses of oxymorphone, hydromorphone, fentanyl, thiopental, propofol or etomidate may also be used for maintenance. Alternatively, fentanyl and propofol may be given as a continuous infusion. The patient should ideally be normovolemic prior to anesthesia. Fluid rates should be adjusted to match urine output. Maintenance rates (4-6 ml/kg/hr) are generally adequate, although higher rates may be needed in patients that are cardiovascularly unstable. Ideally, recovery should be rapid with little to no excitement. The endotracheal tube is left in as long as possible so the patient can continue being ventilated. Lidocaine may be given just prior to extubation to help prevent coughing. Anesthetizing the Patient with Hepatic Dysfunction Patients with hepatic dysfunction often have difficulty with drug metabolism, including metabolism or most intravenous anesthetic agents; prolonged anesthetic recovery may result. Choice of anesthetic is based upon the underlying disease and an estimation of the degree of hepatic dysfunction (remember that small elevations in liver enzymes may be quite significant in cats) Preanesthetics are usually not required. If a premedicant is necessary, an opioid is preferred since it can be reversed. Use of intravenous induction agents should be minimized. If necessary opioids (especially those with short duration of action such as fentanyl) in combination with a benzodiazepine are preferred for induction since they can be reversed. Propofol may be used in patient where cardiovascular concerns are minimal. In cases of severe disease, intravenous agents are best avoided altogether and a mask induction using an inhalant anesthetic is usually done. Remember that the liver receives its blood supply from two sources: the hepatic artery and the portal vein. Since part of the blood supply is venous, the liver is at high risk for suffering hypoxic cellular damage during periods of low perfusion. To prevent an exacerbation of hepatic dysfunction postoperatively, patients should always receive supplemental oxygen and drugs should be chosen to optimize cardiovascular function. Hypoalbuminemia may result in an increase in the unbound, active form of intravenous drugs and administration of normal doses may result in relative drug overdose. Coagulopathies may result from a decrease in vitamin K dependent clotting factors and fresh frozen plasma or whole blood may be required preoperatively. Hypoglycemia may also be present and require dextrose infusion intraoperatively Anesthetizing the Patient with Renal Disease All anesthetics can cause depression of renal function due to the decrease in sympathetic tone that occurs during anesthesia. In patients with underlying renal disease, changes in renal blood flow may produce additional damage, especially during periods of hypotension, resulting in acute renal failure post-operatively. Fluids should be administered preoperatively (preferably 24 hrs prior to anesthesia) to maximize renal function and assure adequate intravascular volume. Electrolytes should be measure preoperatively; common abnormalities include hyperkalemia and hypocalcemia, both of which may precipitate cardiac arrhythmias on induction of anesthesia Anesthetic agents should be chosen to maximize cardiovascular stability. Anesthetic agents excreted by the kidney unchanged should be minimized (ketamine in cats, pancuronium). Urine output should be monitored intraoperatively; if urine flow should decrease markedly, mechanical obstruction should be excluded first. Urine production generally decreases under anesthesia, both due to decreased blood flow and the antidiuretic effect of decreased body temperature. If a fluid challenge fails to return urine output to normal levels (0.5 - 1.0 ml/kg/h) drug therapy may be required. Mannitol (0.5 - 1 g/kg given as a slow IV bolus over 10 - 20 min) acts as an osmotic diuretic. Furosemide (1 mg/kg) is a loop diuretic and may be used is intravascular volume is adequate. Dopamine (1-3 mcg/kg/min) acts as a renal vasodilator due to dopaminergic effects, but also acts has beta activity which will increase cardiac output and renal blood flow- n.b. higher doses (> 10 mch/kg/min) may result in vasoconstriction (alpha effects). Diuretic effects of all these agents may be enhanced if more than one agent is used in conjunction (e.g. dopamine at 2 mcg/kg/min with furosemide as a constant infusion of 0.1 mg/kg/hr). Close monitoring of renal function should be continued postoperatively Anesthetizing the Animal with Endocrine Disease Animals with pre-existing endocrine disease should have medications continued up until the time of anesthesia. Check the records carefully to be sure that all appropriate pre-operative medications were administered. Prior to induction be sure that all supplies and drugs that may be needed during the procedure are on hand. Diabetes Mellitus Potential problems are: hypovolemia (due to polyuria); hyperglycemia; hypoglycemia; Diabetic Ketoacidosis; hyperosmolarity; autonomic dysfunction. The aim is to avoid hypoglycemia. Patients should receive only half of their insulin dose on the day of anesthesia since they are fasted overnight. Anesthesia should be done early in the day so that the patient can return to normal schedule as soon as possible. Monitor dextrose every hour during surgery and make glucose supplements as needed. Fluid composition is adjusted according to the animal`s blood glucose level:
Potential problems are: hypertension, hypovolemia, tachycardia, thyroid storm. Post-op: airway obstruction due to laryngeal paralysis or tracheal collapse. Propranolol may be instituted prior to anesthesia to control tachycardia (esmolol, an IV beta-blocker, may be used during anesthesia). Avoid excitement. Unless euthyroid, avoid atropine and ketamine and use care with opioids so as to avoid dysphoria and excitement. An acepromazine pre-op may be used. Barbiturates, Diazepam, Etomidate, Propofol and inhalants may be used for induction and maintenance. Hypoadrenocorticism Correct electrolyte imbalances prior to surgery especially Sodium and Potassium. Continue steroid supplementation if applicable up until anesthesia is begun. Administer Dexamethasone 0.25 mg/kg IV at induction of anesthesia, repeat at the end of the procedure. Avoid using Etomidate since it supresses adrenocortical production. Hyperadrenocorticism The potential problems of an adrenalectomy are pneumothorax and adrenal crisis. Observe for hypotension, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, hypoglycemia, and metabolic acidosis. Use appropriate IV fluids. A short-acting glucocorticoid; hydrocortisone sodium phosphate 5.0 mg/kg, prednisolone sodium succinate 1.0 mg/kg, or dexamethasone sodium phosphate 0.2 mg/kg should be administered as an IV bolus at the beginning of surgery.For a bilateral adrenalectomy administer an additional dose of glucocorticoid before the removal of the second adrenal gland or give as a CRI. COMMONLY USED DRUG DOSAGES*
(* Dog and cat doses may differ.) ANESTHESIA FOR THE DOG Anticholinergics are used routinely unless contraindicated. Although there are differences between atropine and glycopyrrolate, in general, choice often depends upon personal preference. Acepromazine in the recommended dosages, used alone, has mild sedative effects and may or may not provide the desired amount of pre-operative sedation. The benzodiazepines used alone are not recommended as they are not good sedatives by themselves. The alpha 2 agonists may provide good sedative effects but are infrequently used as preanesthetics due to cardiovascular concerns. Opioids are used as premeds for their sedative effects as well as for the analgesic effects. They are usually administered with an anticholinergic. However, the addition of acepromazine (or a benzodiazepine) to an opioid will potentiate the sedative effects of the opioid and may reduce the likelihood of dysphoria, panting, or other excitatory reactions. If using an intramuscular (IM) pre op,it should be given at least 15-20 minutes prior to the insertion of the IV catheter and the induction of anesthesia. Healthy dog IM pre-op protocol: -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and HYDROMORPHONE 0.2 mg/kg -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and OXYMORPHONE 0.1 mg/kg -ACEPROMAZINE 0.02 - 0.1 mg/kg -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and ACEPROMAZINE 0.02 - 0.05 mg/kg and HYDROMORPHONE 0.1 mg/kg -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and ACEPROMAZINE 0.02 - 0.05 mg/kg and OXYMORPHONE 0.05 mg/kg -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and BUPRENORPHINE 0.01 mg/kg -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and ACEPROMAZINE 0.02 - 0.05 mg/kg and BUPRENORPHINE 0.006 - 0.01 mg/kg -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and BUTORPHANOL 0.5 mg/kg -ATROPINE 0.02 mg/kg and ACEPROMAZINE 0.02 - 0.05 mg/kg and BUTORPHANOL 0.1 - 0.4 mg/kg *GLYCOPYRROLATE 0.01 mg/kg may be substituted for ATROPINE. Healthy dog IV induction protocol: THIOPENTAL (2.0%) is given in a 2 mg/kg bolus while an assistant is monitoring the pulse and checking for arrhythmias. The animal is observed for any adverse reaction. The second bolus of 4 mg/kg is given after a 15 second pause. The drug is given in 2 - 4 mg/kg boluses until the dog is deep enough to intubate. PROPOFOL is administered slowly in boluses of 1 -2 mg/kg. MIDAZOLAM (0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg) or DIAZEPAM (given in a separate syringe) may be added to either of the above protocols if desired PROPOFOL-DIAZEPAM INDUCTION PROPOFOL 2 mg/kg and DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV Continue with PROPOFOL at 1 - 2 mg/kg until intubation is possible. May cause hypotension. KETAMINE (10 mg/kg) and DIAZEPAM (0.5 mg/kg) Give half of the Ketamine and all of the diazepam. Then give rest of the ketamine to desired effect. If the ketamine and diazepam are mixed together in the syringe, the volume of diazepam must be equal to or greater than the ketamine volume. Typically, 5 mg/kg ketamine and 0.5 mg/kg diazepam (1:2) is adequate for intubation. PROTOCOL FOR A SICK OR DEBILITATED DOG IM premedication is usually avoided in the very sick or debilitated dog. If necessary, an opioid is generally used. After placement of an IV catheter, an ECG should be placed prior to induction (if available). Pre-oxygenation is advisable. Use appropriate fluids and caution with heart disease. Induction Depending upon how ill the patient is, thiopental, propofol or ketamine/diazepam may be appropriate if used in small amounts. In very ill patients, IV administration of a potent opioid pure agonist (but NOT morphine) and a benzodiazepine will significantly reduce the dosage of, or eliminate the need for, a hypnotic induction agent. If intubation cannot be accomplished etomidate may be administered. Lidocaine administered IV may also reduce the dosage of the induction agent due to its sedative effects. OPIOID INDUCTION ATROPINE 0.01mg/kg IV OR GLYCOPYRROLATE 0.005 mg/kg IV *Use anticholinergic only if necessary. FENTANYL 0.005mg/kg OR HYDROMORPHONE 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IV DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV LIDOCAINE (2%) 2 mg/kg IV (if not contraindicated) You may need to give additional opioid to achieve intubation. Start with 1/2 the original dose. OPIOID - ETOMIDATE INDUCTION ATROPINE 0.01mg/kg OR GLYCOPYRROLATE 0.005 mg/kg IV *Use anticholinergic only if necessary. FENTANYL 0.005mg/kg OR HYDROMORPHONE 0.2 mg/kg IV DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV ETOMIDATE 0.2 - 1.5 mg/kg IV MASK INDUCTION with ISOFLURANE or SEVOFLURANE Note that a mask induction may lead to clinically significant hypotension due to the need for relatively high concentrations of inhalant. A slow titrated induction with an opioid and benzodiazepine is preferred. Maintenance Isoflurane or Sevoflurane in O2 may be used as long as the blood pressure is adequate. If blood pressure is poor the inhalant should be decreased or turned off and injectable anesthetics used. INJECTABLE ANESTHESIA FENTANYL 0.0025 - 0.005 mg/kg IV boluses HYDROMORPHONE 0.05 - 0.1 mg/kg boluses DIAZEPAM 0.2 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 mg/kg IV boluses Given as needed to maintain sedation and analgesia. CONTINUOUS INFUSIONS FENTANYL 0.0007 - 0.0015 mg/kg/min MORPHINE 0.1 - 0.2 mg/kg/hr KETAMINE 0.1 - 0.2 mg/kg/hr (note : morphine and ketamine are often used in combination to increase analgesia and decrease MAC intraoperatively) ANESTHESIA FOR SIGHT HOUNDS Because of the smaller volume of distribution and lower clearance of thiopental in these dogs the anesthetic technique should be modified. Note that thiopental may be used if indicated (e.g. patients with head trauma or increased intracranial pressure for any reason), but doses should be adjusted and adjunct medication used to decrease the total amount of the thiopental given. Oxybarbiturates (e.g. methohexital) may be used in place of thiopental. IM Preop Any pre-op may be given from the NORMAL DOG protocol (see page 10). Many Greyhounds are nervous and can become agitated after a pure opioid premed. Induction PROPOFOL 1 - 2 mg/kg IV. Repeat until intubation is achieved. DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 mg/kg IV can be added if desired. or DIAZEPAM 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.5 mg/kg and KETAMINE 5 - 10 mg/kg IV or FENTANYL 0.005 mg/kg OR HYDROMORPHONE 0.2 mg/kg and DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV ETOMIDATE 0.2 - 1.5 mg/kg IV can be added if desired. Maintenance Remember that all potent inhalants may trigger "malignant hyperthermia", an increase in metabolic rate and CO2 production, in susceptible animals. Increased respiratory rate, heart rate, and blood pressure CO2 absorber consumption are often seen before increased temperature. MAST CELL TUMOR PROTOCOL Patients with mast cell tumors are at risk for complications due to the potential for histamine release i.e. vasodilation/hypotension, airway swelling and bronchiolar constriction, gastric acid secretion. The use of opioids for mast cell cases may be controversial. There have been studies that demonstrate that oxymorphone and hydromorphone do not release histamine; however, care should still be taken with their use. Premed with Benadryl 2 mg/kg IM. and if needed, any of the pre-meds before mentioned. Famotidine 0.5 mg/kg IV and Dexamethasone 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV may be given VERY SLOWLY before or after induction. Any of the following drugs may be used for induction and maintenance: Thiopental, Diazepam, Propofol, Etomidate. ANESTHESIA FOR C-SECTION The general aim is to minimize the amount of inhalant given to the bitch prior to removal of the puppies. Note that the only anesthetics that have been associated with an INCREASED morbidity and mortality of the neonates are the alpha-2 agonists (xylazine, medetomidine) and these drugs should NOT be used. Generally a line block with lidocaine is performed prior to induction (if possible). An epidural may also be done (morphine/lidocaine or bupivacaine), although the local anesthetic should NOT be included if the animal is hemodynamically unstable. Propofol IV given as slow 1 mg/kg boluses. Although propofol freely crosses the placental barrier, the majority of the drug will redistribute back to the larger maternal circulation over a 5 - 10 minute period . Residual propofol in the neonatal circulation at birth will eventually be cleared.
SEDATION / CHEMICAL RESTRAINT FOR DOGS
Pre-op KETAMINE 2 - 6 mg/kg and MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.4 mg/kg and HYDROMORPHONE 0.05 - 0.1 mg/kg (or BUTORPHANOL 0.2 - 0.4 mg/kg) IM KETAMINE 8.0 mg/kg IM. This preop may have maximum effect as early as 5 minutes from time of injection. CAUTION - IM ketamine may sting!! Both drugs can be drawn up in the same syringe. KETAMINE 2 - 6 mg/kg and DIAZEPAM 0.25 - 0.4 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.25 - 0.4 mg/kg IM TELAZOL 2 - 4 mg/kg IM KETAMINE 8 - 10 mg/kg and ACEPROMAZINE 0.03 - 0.05 mg/kg IM *Atropine 0.02 mg/kg or Glycopyrrolate 0.01 mg/kg may be used with any IM pre-op if desired. Induction KETAMINE 2.0 mg/kg and DIAZEPAM 0.5 mg/kg IV. OR THIOPENTAL 2.0 - 4.0 mg/kg (+/- Diazepam) OR PROPOFOL 1.0 - 2.0 mg/kg (+/- Diazepam) OR ETOMIDATE 0.2 - 1.5 mg/kg (+/- Diazepam) Please note that all Etomidate given to cats will be diluted. The concentration used for healthy cats is 1.0 mg/ml. The concentration for cats with renal disease is 0.1 - 0.2 mg/ml PROTOCOL FOR A SICK OR DEBILITATED CAT INDUCTION DIAZEPAM / MIDAZOLAM-ETOMIDATE INDUCTION DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV. ETOMIDATE 0.2 - 1.5 mg/kg IV. OPIOID INDUCTION HYDROMORPHONE 0.1 - .2 mg/kg OR FENTANYL 0.005 mg/kg IV and DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV. *Atropine 0.01 mg/kg OR Glycopyrrolate 0.005 mg/kg IV may be used if needed. You may also use ETOMIDATE 0.2 mg/kg IV. LIDOCAINE 1 mg/kg may be given IV or used topically. KETAMINE-DIAZEPAM / MIDAZOLAM INDUCTION KETAMINE 2.0 mg/kg IV. DIAZEPAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg OR MIDAZOLAM 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg IV. BOX OR MASK INDUCTION WITH ISOFLURANE or SEVOFLURANE SEDATION / CHEMICAL RESTRAINT FOR CATS KETAMINE and XYLAZINE MIXTURE 1 ml/10 kg IM, 1 ml/50 kg IV We pre-mix 3 mls Ketamine (100 mg/ml) with 1 ml Xylazine (20 mg/ml). KETAMINE 2.0 - 4.0 mg/kg IV and DIAZEPAM 0.2 0.5 mg/kg IV and BUTORPHANOL 0.1 mg/kg IV and ACEPROMAZINE 0.01 mg/kg IV Repeat if necessary, Double the above combination if giving IM PROPOFOL 1 - 2 mg/kg IV boluses and DIAZEPAM 0.25 - 0.5 mg/kg IV Watch for hypotension and respiratory depression. TELAZOL 2 -4 mg/kg IM *Atropine 0.1 - 0.2 mg/kg or Glycopyrrolate 0.05 - 0.1 mg/kg may be used if desired. TREATMENT OF HYPOTENSION If the animal's systolic blood pressure on the doppler falls to or below 80 mmHg or the mean arterial pressure is less than 60 mmHg by direct pressure measurement or by the dinamap, corrective measures should be taken.
Epinephrine - make an IV drip using 1 mg of epinephrine in a 250 ml bag of 0.9% NaCl. Start slowly and titrate to effect, watch for arrhythmias. Dopamine - Dopaminergic effects (renal vasodilation) are seen at doses of 1 - 3 ug/kg/min. Beta effects (inotropic, chronotropic) are seen at moderate doses of 5 - 10 ug/kg/min. Alpha effects (vasoconstriction) are seen at higher doses of > 10 ug/kg/min. (To make a drip, use the following equation: # of ug/kg/min x weight(in kg) = # of mgs Placed in 250 ml of 0.9% NaCl. Infuse at 15 ml/hr.) Ephedrine - dilute 50 mg (1 ml) ampule in 9 ml of fluid. Beware of arrhythmias. Dose - 0.1 - 0.5 mg/kg. Dobutamine - Start at 5 ug/kg/min. If this dose is not effective go to 10 ug/kg/min. May cause tachycardia without increased pressure. CONTROLLING VENTILATION Respiratory Minute Volume = TV x RR.
Animals with a history of thoracic trauma or evidence of lung contusions should be ventilated very gently to lower airway pressures to minimize risk of a rupture. A higher respiratory rate and smaller tidal volume can be tried to see if adequate ventilation can be achieved with a lower inflation pressure. HOWEVER, THE VENTILATION MUST BE ADEQUATE REGARDLESS OF THE PRESSURE REQUIRED. RE ESTABLISHMENT OF SPONTANEOUS VENTILATION Spontaneous ventilation following a period of controlled ventilation is easily initiated within minutes. Conditions that contribute to prolonged apnea are as follows:
The time period in which ventilation can be stopped to allow for accumulation of CO2 without a drop in O2 tension is dependent on the delivered O2 concentration. On room air for example, hypoventilation or cessation of ventilation for a short period of time will result in hypoxemia. When 100% oxygen is used, ventilation can be stopped for longer periods of time to allow for the accumulation of CO2. Hypoxemia may eventually stimulate ventilation depending on the cause of lack of ventilation but is dangerous and should not be done. Carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction to oxygen but not as rapidly due to the higher molecular weight, greater solubility in tissues and a subsequent lower pressure gradient. Within 2 3 minutes CO2 tension can increase by mmHg torr. If no ventilatory movement is noted within this time frame, controlled ventilation must be again initiated, and other causes for the lack of spontaneous respiration investigated. Opioids, barbiturates, and other depressants used in the preanesthetic and induction period may be present in sufficient concentrations to depress ventilation. Lack of external stimulation will also contribute to apnea following a period of controlled ventilation. Anesthetic Approach To The Hemodynamically Compromised Patient Anesthesia in patients with cardiovascular instability include patients with primary cardiac disease and patients presenting with cardiac signs (e.g. arrhythmias) secondary to trauma or significant metabolic disease. The choice of anesthetic agent will depend on the underlying disease process, the presence or absence of heart failure and degree of heart failure, and the presence or absence of arrhythmias. Stress during patient handling should be avoided if possible to minimize catecholamine release, tachycardia and increased myocardial work. This may require sedation for pre-operative diagnostic procedures and occasionally requires pre-operative medication in patients that are not already depressed. Patients on medication for heart failure are generally continued on their medication up until the time of surgery. However, intractable hypotension has been reported under anesthesia on patients receiving angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors such as enalapril. SEDATION A combination of an opioid agonist (e.g. oxymorphone 0.05 - 0.1 mg/kg or hydromorphone 0.1 - 0.2 mg/kg) or agonist/antagonist (e.g. butorphanol 0.1 mg/kg or buprenorphine 0.006 - 0.01 mg/kg), and a benzodiazepine tranquilizer (diazepam 0.25 mg/kg or midazolam 0.2 mg/kg), may be used to sedate patients for chest radiographs or echocardiography. This combination provides sedation with minimal cardiovascular depression. Some patients may pant if a pure opioid agonist is used. The combination may be repeated IV if necessary or the dosage doubled and given IM. Reversal may be accomplished by using an opioid antagonist such as naloxone (0.02 mg/kg) and/or a benzodiazepine antagonist such as flumazenil (0.01 - 0.02 mg/kg) IV. Phenothiazine tranquilizers such as acepromazine should be avoided in patients where volume status is a concern. However, acepromazine in very low doses (0.02 mg/kg IM) may be beneficial in some circumstances because it calms the patient, decreases afterload, and decreases the incidence of arrhythmias. It should only be used after careful consideration, however, since the alpha blockade may lead to peripheral vasodilation, hypotension and decreased preload. PREMEDICATION Premedication is NOT required for most patients with severe heart disease, significant metabolic disease or patients presenting as an emergency secondary to trauma . However, relatively healthy patients such as puppies with patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) or healthier dogs presenting for pericardectomy may require premedication. If pre-operative sedation is necessary, opioids are generally the drug of choice since they cause minimal cardiovascular depression (left ventricular contractility, cardiac output and systemic blood pressure are well maintained). In addition, they provide excellent analgesia. In healthy animals, opioids cause behavioral changes ranging from sedation to excitement; however, in critically ill patients, opioids usually cause sedation. Opioids may cause bradycardia. Heart rate should be monitored and an anticholinergic such as glycopyrrolate or atropine administered if necessary. Anticholinergics are not used unless indicated since they may predispose to cardiac arrhythmias. Phenothiazine tranquilizers such as acepromazine should be avoided in patients where volume status or cardiovascular stability is a concern, due to the potential for hypotension secondary to alpha blockade. Ketamine provides relative cardiovascular stability. However, it also causes catecholamine release, tachycardia and increased myocardial consumption. In addition, it may predispose to arrhythmias. Therefore, other combinations are preferred and ketamine should only be used after careful consideration in patients with cardiac disease. Alpha-2 agonists such as xylazine or medetomidine should NOT be used in patients with cardiovascular instability, due to a number of potentially significant cardiovascular side effects (vasoconstriction and increased afterload, bradycardia, decreased cardiac output, decreased oxygen delivery to the tissues). Stabilization of fluid balance and cardiovascular function is essential prior to the induction of anesthesia. Cardiac arrhythmias are often seen in patients with primary cardiac disease. However, cardiac arrhythmias, especially ventricular ectopy, are also frequently seen with many conditions requiring emergency surgery (eg gastric dilatation/volvulus, acute abdominal bleed, contusions of the chest). The most common arrhythmias are premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), although ventricular tachycardia and AV heart block are often seen as well. If the patient has an occasional PVC that always arises from the same focus, it probably does not need to be treated; if the patient has frequent, multifocal PVCs, pulse deficits, or paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia, it probably should be treated. If ventricular ectopy is present, conversion to normal sinus rhythm with IV lidocaine (2 mg/kg IV) may be attempted prior to induction; if this is successful wait to see if the arrhythmia returns and how long it takes. If the arrhythmia does not respond to lidocaine, other antiarrhythmic therapy should be instituted (procainamide, bretylium, quinidine). More recently, amiodarone has been suggested as a first line of defense in patients with ventricular tachycardia. Adenosine or digoxin may be used for patients with supraventricular tachycardia. In the acute setting, esmolol, a short-acting beta blocker, may be indicated, although the patient should be carefully monitored as a decrease in cardiac contractility may be seen in addition to the desired decrease in heart rate. INDUCTION In patients where cardiovascular function is a concern, induction should be slow with careful titration of drugs to effect and continuous monitoring of cardiovascular parameters throughout induction (EKG, blood pressure). Patients should be preoxygenated if possible prior to induction. A slow titrated induction using a combination of an opioid agonist such as hydromorphone (0.1 - 0.2 mg/kg), oxymorphone (0.05 - 0.1 mg/kg) or fentanyl (0.0025 - 0.005 mg/kg), and a benzodiazepine tranquilizer such as diazepam (0.2 -0.5 mg/kg) or midazolam (0.2 mg/kg) is preferred. Additional opioids may be given until intubation is possible. Lidocaine (1-2 mg/kg) may be added to this combination and helps to desensitize the airway and smooth induction and intubation. Etomidate (0.5 - 1.5 mg/kg) may be given after administration of the opioid and benzodiazepine. Etomidate has minimal cardiovascular effects and is especially useful in patients with arrhythmias. Large doses of propofol are generally to be avoided, due to potentially profound cardiovascular side effects, including vasodilation, decreased cardiac contractility and hypotension. However, a low dose (e.g. 1 mg/kg) slowly administered bolus may be useful as an adjunct to aid intubation in some situations. MAINTENANCE Inhalational anesthetics are commonly used for maintenance in cardiac patients. Isoflurane, sevoflurane or desflurane are preferred because they cause less myocardial depression than halothane. Hypotension may occur, however, secondary to vasodilation. Some patients may not tolerate inhalational anesthesia and become profoundly hypotensive. In these patients, a continuous infusion of fentanyl (0.7 - 1.5 ug/kg/min) or morphine may be very useful in decreasing the amount of inhalant needed to maintain anesthesia. Similarly, low dose infusions of propofol (0.1 mg/kg/min) may be used, although careful monitoring of cardiovascular parameters should be made. Alternatively, small IV boluses of an opioid and/or etomidate may be given. Neuromuscular blockers (vecuronium, pancuronium, and atracurium) may be used as an adjunct to general anesthesia. These drugs maintain muscle relaxation in the face of decreased amounts of inhalant or injectable anesthetic agents. Vecuronium produces minimal cardiovascular effects. Pancuronium is vagolytic and should be avoided in patients with tachycardia; in addition, its action is prolonged in patients with renal failure. Atracurium may cause histamine release at higher doses; however it is metabolized by Hofmann elimination (i.e. spontaneous degradation in the blood) making it useful in patients with liver or renal failure. Recently, cis-atracurium has been introduced. Although the pharmacokinetics are similar to those of atracurium, histamine is not released. Cis-atracurium may be given as a 100 ug/kg slow IV bolus, with additional boluses of 50 ug/kg as necessary, or as a continuous infusion at 1 - 10 ug/kg/min. Maintenance fluid rates for anesthetized patients are 10 - 15 ml/kg/hr. In patients with heart failure, lower rates (4-6 ml/kg/hr) are used. INTRAOPERATIVE MONITORING Close monitoring of the cardiovascular system is very important. Heart rate, peripheral pulse quality and mucous membrane color and capillary refill time should all be observed closely. An esophageal stethoscope or an electrocardiogram is helpful, especially in patients with cardiac arrhythmias. Blood pressure may be measured directly using an arterial catheter or indirectly with a Doppler ultrasonic flow probe or an oscillometric measuring device. Pulse oximeters measure changes in the saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen by measuring changes in the differential transmission of light at two different wavelengths. Although pulse oximeters do not monitor blood pressure per se, they must be able to detect a pulse in order to work. Therefore, they may stop functioning as peripheral perfusion decreases, which can alert the clinician to changes in cardiovascular status. Measuring central venous pressure (CVP) is also very useful for monitoring the effects of fluid administration in patients with borderline cardiac function. Urine output may be monitored intraoperatively. If urine flow should decrease markedly, mechanical obstruction should be excluded first. Urine production generally decreases during anesthesia. If fluid challenge fails to return urine output to normal levels (0.5 - 1.0 ml/kg/h) drug therapy may be required. Mannitol (0.5 - 1 g/kg given as a slow IV bolus over 10 - 20 min) acts as an osmotic diuretic. Furosemide (1 - 2 mg/kg or as a constant infusion of 0.1 mg/kg/hr) is a loop diuretic and may be used if intravascular volume is adequate. Dopamine (1 - 3 ug/kg/min) may also improve urine production, although studies suggest that the diuretic effect is due to beta-mediated increases in cardiac output and renal blood flow, rather than stimulation of the dopamine receptors at lower doses. Diuretic effects of all these agents may be enhanced if more than one agent is used in combination. Close monitoring of renal function should be continued postoperatively. INTRAOPERATIVE CARDIOVASCULAR CRISES Hypotension Systemic blood pressure must be maintained above the minimum level required for cerebral, coronary, and renal perfusion. Autoregulation of these organs is normally maintained with a mean arterial blood pressure of 50 -150 mmHg. Mean arterial blood pressures less than 60 mmHg (or systolic pressures less than 80 mmHg) are generally considered inadequate. Changes in blood pressure are determined by changes in cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance (BP = Q x SVR). Cardiac output, in turn, is determined by stroke volume and heart rate (Q = SV x HR). Decreases in stroke volume may be seen secondary to decreased venous return (decreased preload) often caused by underlying fluid deficits or peripheral vasodilation (decreased systemic vascular resistance) leading to a relative fluid deficit. In addition, stroke volume may be decreased due to decreased myocardial contractility, increased systemic vascular resistance (increased afterload), and cardiac arrhythmias. Recognition of hypotension includes changes in heart rate and rhythm, assessment of tissue perfusion, and measurement of systemic arterial blood pressure. Tachycardia is a major compensatory response to fluid/blood loss and hypovolemia, although increases in heart rate may also be seen due to inadequate anesthesia, hypercarbia, hypoxemia, or drug administration (e.g. anticholinergic). Tissue perfusion may be assessed by changes in mucous membrane color and character, capillary refill time, evaluation of peripheral pulses, temperature of the extremities, and urine production. As noted above, although pulse oximeters do not detect blood pressure per se, as peripheral perfusion and pulse pressures decrease, the pulse oximeter will stop functioning and may alert the clinician to the presence of cardiovascular depression. Arterial blood pressure may be measured using noninvasive measuring techniques including Doppler ultrasonographic flow probes, newer oscillometric measuring devices (e.g. Dinamap ), or by direct arterial blood pressure measurements. A casual poll of board-certified anesthesiologists found that, if limited to having only one monitoring device available in their practice, the Doppler flow probe would be the monitor of choice. Although only systolic pressures are measured with this device, advantages include portability, flexibility of it's use in a wide range of animal species, relative reliability, and the availability of an audible signal which allows one to monitor heart rhythm and rate as well as blood pressure. The underlying cause of hypotension should be identified and corrected as rapidly as possible. Hypotension is most commonly due to inadequate preoperative fluid replacement or failure to keep up with intra-operative fluid and/or blood loss. Evaluate losses, volume status, PCV/TS and administer fluids as indicated. Maintenance fluid rates for the anesthetized patient (6-12 ml/kg/hr) are greater than those for the awake patient due to greater evaporative losses from the respiratory tract as dry air passes through the endotracheal tube, greater evaporative losses via exposed body cavities, and greater third space losses with surgical manipulation. Higher fluid rates are usually needed in emergency patients with preexisting deficits or ongoing blood losses. Low diastolic pressures (< 40 mmHg), large positional changes in blood pressure, or difficulty in tolerating positive pressure ventilation may all alert the clinician to the presence of inadequate volume. Fluid replacement is generally accomplished using an isotonic balanced electrolyte solution, with a 3:1 ratio used for replacement of blood loss. Several commercial solutions similar in composition and indications are available, including Normosol-R, Lactated Ringers, and normal saline. Colloid may be added to the resuscitation (a dose of 20 ml/kg is roughly equivalent to a shock dose of 90 ml/kg crystalloid with plasma volume expansion being similar to the volume of colloid given) as necessary. Several synthetic colloid solutions are available. Dextrans are supplied in low and high molecular weight forms, Dextran 40 and 70 respectively. Dextran 70 (MW=70,000) is given as a 6% solution in normal saline at a rate of 10-20 ml/kg/day. The plasma half life is estimated at 2 to 6 hours. Plasma volume expansion is 20 - 25 ml/ gram dextran. Advantages include that they are relatively inexpensive (vs. other colloids). Disadvantages include a tendency toward coagulopathies due to interference with fibrin clot formation, decreases in factor VIII and von Willebrand's factor (increased activated PTT and buccal mucosal bleeding time), nonspecific platelet binding interfering with platelet function and dilution of clotting factors. In addition, allergic reactions and anaphylactic shock have been reported. Hydroxyethylstarch (HES, hetastarch) is a synthetic polymer of glucose with a average MW=450,000, although it is a polydisperse solution with both larger and smaller molecular portions. It is generally given as a 6% solution in normal saline at a suggested rate of up to 10 - 20 ml/kg/day. Advantages include a more persistent effect than dextran (40 % remains in plasma after 24 hrs) with the plasma volume returning to normal in 48 hours. Disadvantages include it's relative expense and coagulopathies which are frequently seen at volumes > 24 ml/kg/day. Allergic reactionS are seen, although anaphylactic shock has not been reported. Fresh frozen plasma may be used not only for intravascular volume replacement but for replacement of albumin, coagulation factors (including Factor VIII and VWF), and other important plasma proteins. Fresh frozen plasma is generally given at a dose of 6-10 ml/kg. In man, 10% of the transfused albumin is cleared within 2 hours. Disadvantages for volume replacement include limited availability, expense, the relatively transient nature of the effect, and the possibility of a transfusion reaction (urticaria,+/- fever). Blood or blood products may be administered as needed based upon estimation of blood loss, PCV/TS, and clinical presentation. Cross match should be done if possible, although the likelihood of a transfusion reaction is decreased if the dog has not previously received a transfusion. They are generally given at a beginning dose of 10-20 ml/kg. Hypotension will be aggravated by the myocardial depression and peripheral vasodilation caused by many anesthetic agents, especially at deeper planes of anesthesia. While attempting to discover the cause for hypotension, it is generally a good idea to increase the fluid rate (unless the patient has other disease in which fluid loading may be detrimental) and decrease the depth of anesthesia. All inhalant anesthetics depress the cardiovascular system to some extent, either by direct effects on the myocardium (halothane) or by decreases in systemic vascular resistance (isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurante). In some cases, maintenance of anesthesia may need to be changed to an injectable technique, such as fentanyl infusion, causing less cardiovascular depression than inhalant techniques. Pharmacological Support Pharmacologic support may be required if hypotension is severe and does not respond to fluids or changes in anesthetic depth. Drugs are selected based on the patient's condition and physiologic response and based on their interaction with alpha and beta receptors. Alpha agonists stimulate alpha receptors in the peripheral vasculature and increase blood pressure by causing vasoconstriction. They should be used with care if the patient is bleeding profusely or volume deplete, since blood flow to vital organs could be compromised. Common pressors include phenylephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Beta 1 agonists increase both heart rate and contractility, increasing blood pressure by an increase in cardiac output. Common inotropes include epinephrine, dopamine and dobutamine. All of these may cause tachyarrhythmias at higher doses. Beta 2 agonists cause peripheral vasodilation (especially in skeletal muscle) and bronchodilation. Drugs with mixed beta 1 and 2 activity may cause an increase in contractility and heart rate, without an increase blood pressure, due to the decrease in systemic vascular resistance. It is important to realize that recommended doses are determined using healthy subjects. Receptor affinities and volumes of distribution change in critically ill patients. Drugs which work in part through an indirect effect by causing release of endogenous norepinephrine stores (dopamine, ephedrine) may not be the best choice in critically ill patients where these stores are somewhat depleted.
Other drugs used for pressure support include phosphodiesterase inhibitors (amrinone, milrinone) which exert a positive inotropic effect by increasing cAMP, and calcium. Calcium increases myocardial contractility and cardiac output, as well as increasing vascular tone. It is used to treat myocardial depression secondary to hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, hypermagnesemia, or aminoglycosides. Calcium should be used with caution due to untoward effects during ischemia reperfusion injury. Recent studies have suggested that vasopressin (ADH) may be efficacious at increasing blood pressures in patients with refractory hypotension due to chronic ACE inhibitor therapy, or in patients with hypotension refractory to other agents. An infusion rate of .0005 U/kg/min may be used. Similarly, vasopressin has recently been recommended for use during cardiac arrest given as a bolus IV dose at 0.4 - 0.8 U/kg. Cardiac Rhythm Disturbances Although a marked change in heart rate may not be of concern in and of itself, it often serves as an important sign of other clinical problems that must be identified and treated accordingly. Any heart rate that appears to be outside the "normal" range should be compared to the "normal" heart rate for that animal. A marked increase in heart rate may be detrimental if it prevents adequate ventricular filling or increases myocardial work and oxygen consumption, especially in patients with underlying cardiac disease. Common causes of tachycardia include inadequate anesthesia, inadequate blood volume and poor tissue perfusion, hypercarbia with consequent sympathetic stimulation, and hypoxemia. Bradycardia may be of concern if there are concurrent signs of inadequate tissue perfusion or cardiac arrhythmias, such as ventricular escape beats, occur. Common causes include excessive anesthesia, increased vagal tone due to opioid administration or surgical stimulation, hypoxemia, or hypothermia. Although almost any arrhythmia is possible in the anesthetized patient, those most commonly seen include premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), and second degree AV block. First, determine the significance of the arrhythmia. Identify the rhythm as atrial or ventricular. Was the rhythm pre-existing or did it occur after induction of anesthesia (and, if so, what drugs were used for induction)? How frequently is the arrhythmia occurring and is the frequency changing? Is the arrhythmia multifocal or unifocal (similar in shape and size)? Is the arrhythmia causing a decrease in cardiac output, pulse deficits and/or hypotension? As stated previously, if the animal has an occasional PVC that always arises from the same focus, it probably does not need to be treated, but should be monitored to assure that frequency and/or malignancy does not increase. If the patient has frequent, multifocal PVCs or paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia, lidocaine (1 - 2 mg/kg bolus +/- 0.05 mg/kg/min continuous infusion) is usually the first drug of choice. Second degree AV block and sinus bradycardia are also commonly seen in the anesthetized patient, especially after administering opioids. Although it is frequently unnecessary to treat these rhythm disturbances, if the animal is hypotensive or if ventricular escape beats are occurring due to the slow sinus rate, they may be treated with IV atropine (0.005 - 0.02 mg/kg) or glycopyrrolate (0.0025 - 0.01 mg/kg). Identification and correction of the underlying cause for the arrhythmia is the preferred treatment. POSTOPERATIVE CARE Continued fluid support is often critical in patients with cardiovascular instability, although care should be taken in patients in heart failure. Supplemental oxygen is occasionally indicated. Effective analgesia with minimal cardiovascular side effects is also important. It is now known that postoperative pain may actually delay recovery due to significant negative physiologic side effects including immobility, decreased pulmonary function, autonomic nervous system changes and increased oxygen consumption, stress hormone release, inappetance and insomnia. Most importantly, postoperative pain leads to patient suffering. Opioids Opioids are generally preferred for postoperative analgesia in the critical patient due to their preservation of cardiac function. Watch for respiratory depression. They may be used epidurally, intrathecally or systemically to inhibit pain transmission from the dorsal root to higher centers in the somatosensory cortex or to modulate the perception of pain at the level of higher centers. Pure opioid agonists (including morphine, hydromorphone, oxymorphone, and fentanyl) bind to all of the opioid receptors and provide the most profound analgesia. However, the side effects may also be pronounced, especially in debilitated animals. Opioid agonist-antagonists and partial agonists, such as butorphanol and buprenorphine, generally provide less analgesia than pure opioid agonists, but the side effects also tend to be less severe. Therefore, their use may be preferred in certain situations. Butorphanol, a kappa agonist, is generally considered a mild to moderate analgesic, although it has proven effective in models of visceral pain. The duration of analgesia, however, is relatively short (45 minutes - 1 hour). Buprenorphine, a partial mu agonist, provides effective analgesia for many types of procedures and has a relatively long duration of action. However, due to its high affinity for the mu receptor, undesirable side effects may be difficult to reverse with naloxone. One of the difficulties in using one of these agents, rather than a pure agonist, is the presumed bell shape of the dose response curve. For example, butorphanol can act as a mu antagonist at higher concentrations and analgesia may actually decrease at higher doses. Buprenorphine has a similarly shaped dose response curve. In addition, administration of these agents may partially reverse analgesia provided by previously administered pure agonists Alternative routes of opioid administration, such as epidural or intraarticular, are being used with increasing popularity. Since systemic levels of the drug tend to be lower, side effects tend to less severe. Transdermal fentanyl patches are also used for long term pain relief. However, animals should be closely monitored for signs of nausea and inappetance, depression and dysphoria. Before administering an opioid (or any other drug), carefully observe the animal and consider the underlying disease process. If any expected side effects are undesirable, excessive or potentially life-threatening alter your analgesic technique. For systemic administration, hydromorphone (0.05 - 0.2 mg/kg) or oxymorphone (0.02 - 0.1 mg/kg) IV or IM are generally preferred if CV stability is a concern and can provides adequate pain relief for 2 - 4 hours. Morphine is more sedative than oxymorphone at equianalgesic doses and provides pain relief for 4 - 6 hours; however it should not be used IV as a bolus in critical patients due to the possibility of histamine release with secondary hypotension. Therefore, it is generally given SQ or IM or as a continuous low-dose infusion (0,05 - 0.1 mg/kg/hr). Do not use in patients that are vomiting or where GI ulceration is a concern. Butorphanol (0.1 - 0.5 mg/kg) and buprenorphine (0.006 - 0.02 mg/kg) may be less respiratory depressant than the other opioids. Butorphanol may be useful in patients that are vomiting (it has been shown to be an effective anti-emetic in human patients receiving chemotherapy), although it should only be used in situations of mild to moderate pain. Local Anesthetics (lidocaine, bupivacaine) Lidocaine and bupivacaine are local amide anesthetics frequently used in veterinary medicine. These drugs act by blocking the sodium channel in the neuronal membrane, inhibiting action potential generation and propagation. Local anesthetics are extremely useful for providing analgesia for pain arising in discrete locations. Bupivacaine has a longer duration of action than lidocaine (8 hr vs. 2 hr, respectively). Bupivacaine may be infiltrated around the intercostal nerves or given interpleurally to provide analgesia after thoracotomy. For interpleural administration, the dog is placed incision side down before the bupivacaine (1.5 mg/kg of a 0.5% preservative-free bupivacaine solution) is administered via the chest tube or a pediatric feeding tube placed specially for this purpose. The local anesthetic diffuses across the parietal pleura and allows repeated block of the intercostal nerves (every 4 - 6 hours). Lidocaine may also be used but has a shorter duration of action. 0.1 mEq of sodium bicarbonate may be added to an ml of the local anesthetic to reduce the pain on injection. Perineural drug infiltration is also useful for other painful procedures such as amputation. Local anesthetics may also be given intraarticularly (0.3 ml/kg of a 0.5% preservative-free bupivacaine solution) at the time of surgery, and most dogs will not require further analgesics. These drugs may also be administered epidurally or intrathecally. The site for epidural injection in small animal patients is usually the lumbosacral intervertebral space. It is important to remember, however, that when local anesthetics are used, autonomic and motor nerves will be blocked in addition to the sensory blockade. Nerve fibers are affected in proportion to their diameter, the small diameter fibers being affected more rapidly and by lower concentrations of drug. Therefore, sympathetic nerves will be blocked most readily. Vasodilation is commonly seen after epidural administration of local anesthetics, and may cause hypotension in hypovolemic patients. The sympathetic block will extend a couple of dermatomes cranial to the sensory block, potentially causing significant respiratory and cardiovascular side effects. As the dose or concentration of local anesthetic is increased, progressively larger nerves (e.g. motor neurons) become blocked and the cranial extent of the block will increase. Contraindications to epidural injection include hypovolemia and septicemia, coagulopathy, and local skin infection at the site of injection. To achieve a sensory block using bupivacaine, 0.2 ml/kg of 0.25% - 0.5% bupivacaine is given. To achieve a sensory block using lidocaine, 0.2 ml/kg of 2% lidocaine is given (this usually blocks to L1 in a lean, middle-aged dog). The onset of action for epidural lidocaine is relatively rapid (5 to 10 minutes) vs. bupivacaine (15 - 20 minutes), but lidocaine has a shorter duration of action. When given epidurally, local anesthetics are often administered in combination with an opioid (e.g. 0.1 ml/kg 0.5% bupivacaine is generally mixed with 0.1 ml/kg morphine (0.1%, preservative free) and injected at the lumbosacral junction - this combination provides pain relief for up to 24 hours. If cardiovascular stability is a concern or if a higher block is required, the local anesthetic is generally removed from the solution and a pure opioid epidural (e.g. 0.1 ml/kg morphine diluted to 0.2 - 0.3 ml/kg with sterile saline) is used instead. Bupivacaine (0.3 ml of a 0.5% solution) or lidocaine (2mg/kg) may be useful intraperitoneally to decrease inflammation and provide pain relief in some situations (e.g. pancreatitis). Lidocaine (2 mg/kg/h) may also be given as a continuous intravenous infusion, either alone or in combination with morphine or morphine and ketamine, as an adjunct to other methods of analgesia. Bupivacaine should NEVER be used intravenously. Topical administration of lidocaine is efficacious, but care should be taken due to the potential for systemic absorption (especially in cats). EMLA cream is a topical anesthetic consisting of a lidocaine-prilocaine combination. More recently, lidocaine transdermal patches (similar to those containing fentanyl) have been recommended to provide analgesia at discrete areas of injury. Care must be taken when using these drugs by any route, due to their relatively high systemic toxicity. Toxic cardiovascular and neurologic effects (i.e. convulsions) may be seen at doses relatively close to the effective dose. Arrhythmias and myocardial depression from local anesthetics, particularly bupivacaine, can be extremely difficult to treat. The IV seizure dose for lidocaine in dogs has been reported as 11 mg/kg, while that for bupivacaine is 3 mg/kg. Cardiotoxic doses are slightly higher than the seizure dose. These agents rely on hepatic metabolism; therefore, adjustments should be made in patients with liver disease. In addition, half-lives are longer in cats and toxic doses are lower than for dogs. There are no available reversal agents. Non-steroidal Antiinflammatory Agents (NSAIDs) Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents are usually avoided in patients with cardiovascular instability, due to an increased potential for nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity during low flow situations. PERIOPERATIVE ANALGESICS
OPIOIDS
ADJUNCT THERAPY
Anesthetic Approach to the Patient with Respiratory Compromise PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION Patients with respiratory disease include those with upper airway disease and an inability to ventilate and those with primary lung disease and an inability to oxygenate. In addition, some patients with intrathoracic disease such as diaphragmatic hernia have difficulty both ventilating and oxygenating. Patients are handled slightly differently depending upon the primary problem, although preoperative manipulations in both groups should occur with a minimum of stress or excitement. Oxygen supplementation is frequently required while the patient is being assessed. Administration of at least 30 - 35% oxygen using a face mask, nasal cannula or oxygen cage is recommended to prevent hypoxemia secondary to hypoventilation Recognition of hypoventilation is often difficult clinically, but includes changes in respiratory rate and effort, hyperemia due to peripheral vasodilation and signs associated with sympathetic stimulation due to increased CO2. Surgical patients commonly at risk include those presenting with airway disease (laryngeal paralysis, neoplasia, collapsing trachea) as well as brachycephalic breeds presenting for any condition. Accurate assessment of ventilatory status requires measurement of PaCO2 , with normal values being between 35 - 45 mmHg. A venous blood gas (PvO2 < 45 - 50 mmHg) can be helpful in ruling out a diagnosis of hypoventilation, although increases in PvCO2 can be caused by decreased tissue perfusion as well as hypoventilation. Non-invasive estimates of ventilatory status can also be made by measuring end-tidal CO2 using a capnograph. There is some variability in the correlation between end tidal and arterial CO2, especially in patients that are hemodynamically unstable, but end-tidal CO2 generally runs 5 - 10 cm H2O lower than arterial CO2 . This difference may increase significantly with increased dead space ventilation. Recognition of hypoxemia can also be difficult clinically. An increase in respiratory rate and effort is often present in the awake animal at PaO2 values < 60 mmHg. Heart rate initially increases in an attempt to increase cardiac output and oxygen delivery to the tissues, but as hypoxemia becomes more severe, myocardial depression and bradycardia result. Cyanosis of the mucous membranes can usually be detected at an arterial oxygen saturation around 85%, which equates with a PaO2 of approximately 50 mmHg. Although accurate assessment of PaO2 requires an arterial blood gas, changes in oxygen saturation can be measured with a pulse oximeter. Pulse oximetry is a noninvasive monitoring technique that measures oxygen saturation of hemoglobin in the arterial blood by measuring the differential transmission (or absorption) of light at two different wavelengths, 660 nm (red) and 940 nm (infrared). Oxygen saturations should remain > 95% in patients with a PaO2 of 85 mmHg or greater. An oxygen saturation of 90% is roughly equivalent to an arterial oxygen tension of 60 mmHg. Common sites for placement of the probe include the tongue, ear, flank, tail base and rectum. PREMEDICATION All anesthetic agents depress respiration to a greater or lesser degree. Before administering any agent, may sure you are familiar with its effects. The choice of anesthetic agent depends on the underlying disease process and the patient's ability to oxygenate and ventilate. Stress during patient handling should be avoided if possible. Premedication is not required if an intravenous catheter can be placed with minimal stress to the patient. Thoracocentesis should be performed to help stabilize the respiratory system in patients with pleural fluid or air showing signs of respiratory distress. Respiratory depressants, such as opioids, should be used judiciously in patients with severe hypoxemia or upper airway obstruction and patients closely monitored after administration. Patients with upper airway disease are frequently anxious, with the increased respiratory effort often resulting in a vicious cycle of increased airway obstruction and patient distress. A complete preoperative examination is frequently difficult to perform without additional stress. Supplemental oxygen should be provided to prevent hypoxemia secondary to hypoventilation. Premedication with acepromazine can be useful in calming the patient without causing significant respiratory depression, although deep sedation should be avoided. Low doses (0.02-0.04 mg/kg IM) should be used if a complete physical examination can not be performed without further stress to the patient. Acepromazine can result in vasodilation and hypotension, so care should be taken in patients that are cardiovascularly unstable. In dogs with brachycephalic syndrome (stenotic nares, elongated soft palate, everted laryngeal ventricles, and/or hypoplastic trachea), premedication may result in relaxation of the pharyngeal musculature, causing severe upper airway obstruction. Ketamine may be used in cats requiring premedication. Ketamine also acts as a bronchodilator and may be useful in patients with feline asthma Every animal presenting with upper airway obstruction should be closely monitored after administration of any anesthetic agent. INDUCTION Preoxygenation in these patients is extremely important! Patient positioning may also be important (e.g. in the patient with diaphragmatic hernia). Keep the good side up (or at least try to maintain sternal recumbency) to aid ventilation! Anesthetizing a patient that cannot ventilate due to airway obstruction is among the most potentially catastrophic inductions you may experience. Remember the ABC's of CPR...Airway, Breathing.......Induction of the animal having difficulty ventilating due to airway obstruction generally involves a rapid sequence intravenous technique and intubation. A mask induction can lead to unwanted excitement and additional respiratory distress. NEVER assume that intubation will be possible. An assortment of endotracheal tubes should be available and occasionally requires some ingenuity. Premeasurement of tube length is important to ensure proper positioning of the tube beyond the lesion, if the site of obstruction is known. Tubes may need to be of much smaller diameter than usually required for the size of the animal. A tracheostomy set should be readily available in case intubation is not possible. Most patients will spontaneously ventilate once the endotracheal or tracheostomy tube has been placed, bypassing the site of obstruction. Opioids should be used judiciously or avoided altogether for induction in patients with airway obstruction when intubation may be difficult or impossible. In these patients, induction with low doses of propofol (e.g. slow administration of 1 mg/kg boluses to effect) +/- diazepam (0.25 - 0.5 mg/kg) or ketamine (2-5 mg/kg) and diazepam.may be preferred. Application of 2% lidocaine to the laryngeal area using an aerosolizer or syringe may help in cats to decrease laryngospasm and trauma on intubation. In patients with hypoxemia, but no airway obstruction, a combination of an opioid (oxymorphone (0.05 - 0.2 mg/kg), hydromorphone (0.1 - 0.2 mg/kg) or fentanyl (2.5 - 10 ug/kg)) and benzodiazepine(diazepam or midazolam 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg) is useful in allowing a slow, carefully controlled induction with minimal cardiovascular side effects. If a rapid sequence induction is preferred, propofol, ketamine, thiopental, or etomidate may be used in place of, or in addition to, the opioid. Anesthesia is generally maintained with inhalant anesthesia and 100% oxygen. Nitrous oxide should be avoided in patients that are hypoxemic. MAINTENANCE Inhalants are generally used for anesthetic maintenance, since intubation and supplemental oxygen are critical in the majority of patients. Halothane causes less airway irritation and less ventilatory depression than isoflurane, sevoflurane or desflurane. If the site of airway obstruction or tracheal rupture cannot be bypassed, or if the surgical site precludes the use of an endotracheal tube, oxygen may be provided using a small diameter tube and high flows of oxygen (1-7 L/min). Anesthetic maintenance in these cases is achieved with low doses of anesthetic agent, such as propofol and diazepam or ketamine and diazepam, titrated slowly to effect in an attempt to minimize respiratory depression. VENTILATORY SUPPORT Ventilatory support is critical in these patients. Anesthesia of the patient with decreased ventilation or oxygenation should include intubation and delivery of supplemental oxygen. Mechanical ventilation, usually in the form of intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) is frequently required. Usually, a rate of 8 - 15 breaths per minute is used. Tidal volumes are set at 10 - 20 ml/kg, with maximum airway pressures usually limited to 15 - 20 cm H2O. Higher pressures may be required with some conditions to provide adequate tidal volumes. In patients with pulmonary disease, adjustment of peak airway pressures may be necessary to prevent barotrauma, since the lungs are frequently more susceptible to injury. Positive pressure delivered to the thoracic cavity can decrease venous return and cardiac output, especially if the patient is volume deplete. Therefore, the ratio of inspiratory time to expiratory time is generally limited to a ratio of 1:2 or 1:3. If the patient resists mechanical ventilation, an increase in anesthetic depth or use of neuromuscular blockers, such as atracurium or pancuronium, may be required. In patients requiring a thoracotomy, PPV is required when the thorax is opened to prevent hypoxia, hypoventilation, and respiratory acidosis . Treatment of hypoxemia includes delivery of 100% oxygen. Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) may be necessary in patients that remain hypoxemic on 100% oxygen. Maintenance of airway pressure at end-expiration improves oxygenation by increasing alveolar volumes and recruiting collapsed alveoli, changing areas receiving no ventilation (shunt) to areas of low V/Q, which are then responsive to the delivery of supplemental oxygen. Airway pressures of 5 - 15 cmH2O are usually used. Purpose-made PEEP valves are available or, alternatively, the scavenging hose from the pop-off valve may be restricted to produce the desired pressure. Administration of PEEP may cause hypotension due to decreased venous return and cardiac output. The decrease in blood pressure, in conjunction with the increase in alveolar pressure, can lead to increased dead space ventilation. Therefore, the effects of PEEP on oxygenation can be optimized by concurrent administration of an inotrope such as dobutamine. INTRAOPERATIVE MONITORING Close monitoring of the respiratory system is important in these patients, whether or not a thoracotomy is being performed. Respiratory rate and depth, and mucous membrane color should be watched carefully. Oxygen saturations as measured by pulse oximetry should remain > 95% in patients on 100% oxygen. Measurement of end-tidal CO2 with a capnograph is helpful in assuring adequate ventilation. Use of a spirometer, which measures tidal volume, will also help in assessing the adequacy of ventilation. Respiratory minute volume = tidal volume x breaths per minute. Blood gas analysis, where available, is extremely helpful in assessing respiratory status. Close monitoring of the cardiovascular system is also very important in these patients. Heart rate, peripheral pulse quality and mucous membrane color and capillary refill time should all be observed closely. An esophageal stethoscope may be useful for monitoring heart rhythm. Use of an electrocardiogram is helpful, especially in patients with cardiac arrhythmias. Blood pressure may be measured indirectly with a Doppler ultrasonic flow probe or an oscillometric measuring device. Direct measurements are made using an arterial catheter, usually placed in the dorsal metatarsal or femoral artery. POSTOPERATIVE CARE AND MONITORING Continued evaluation of respiratory function is critical in the post-operative period. In many patients, extubation may be more diffi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||